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Though a diagnosis of HIV is scary already, added to that is the uncertainty over insurance. The medications and clinical treatment methods for HIV can be very expensive and require daily attention, all of which can add up quickly. Fortunately, insurance covers most HIV treatment. However, there are situations when the health insurance may not cover the HIV treatment as well.

1. Pre-Existing Conditions

   • For those who already have health insurance at the time of the diagnosis, there is usually no problem. For those who do not, coverage could be denied under a "pre-existing condition" policy. States such as Florida, New Jersey, New York and California make it illegal to deny a group health insurance policy to someone with a pre-existing condition.

   Prescription Drug Coverage

   • For those with a prescription drug component, this should also be covered under the policy. The insurance company cannot deny a patient medically-necessary drugs simply because the patient is HIV positive. However, the insurance company may not pay as much for brand name drugs as it will for generics. If this is the policy, it must be enforced on all policies, not just those for clients with HIV.

   Lifetime Maximums

   • Though many people will never come close to their lifetime maximums on a health insurance policy, those with HIV may challenge that limit, usually set at $1 million or $2 million. That is one more way that insurance companies may eventually deny coverage. However, even with HIV, which can be controlled to a great extent through drug therapy, reaching lifetime maximums is rare (see resources below).

   Losing a Job

   • If an HIV patient loses a job, his or her health insurance coverage could also be threatened. A federal law known as COBRA guarantees patients can keep health insurance for up to 18 months after leaving their employment, but they are responsible for the full cost of premiums. However, this is a way to ensure coverage for treatment.

   Experimental Treatments

   • Treatments that are not designated by the FDA as approved treatments for a condition may be denied as claims. These are referred to as experimental treatments and insurance companies are not required to pay for such treatments. Though they may represent the only hope for some people, the cost of the treatment is up to the individual.

Holly Nash, DVM, reports that an estimated one in 400 elderly cats is diabetic. Elizabeth Hodgkins, DVM, states in most cases the disease is the result of obesity and improper diet. Regular blood glucose monitoring, medication and a special diet all treat feline diabetes. Should the diabetic cat develop an infection, a veterinarian must take the cat's diabetes into consideration before prescribing treatment.

1. Identification

   • Dr. Nash explains that pancreatic beta cells produce insulin, the hormone that aids cell glucose absorption. Should the pancreas fail to adequately release insulin, glucose remains in the blood, raising its level and resulting in a diabetic cat.

   Effects

   • Diabetic cats often suffer from uncomfortable urinary tract infections. cat image by Ivan Zhelev from Fotolia.com

     One of the common complications the diabetic cat suffers from is recurring urinary tract infections. These infections are not only painful for the cat, but are also a sign that the feline's diabetes is not under control.

   Prevention/Solution

   • Pfizer Animal Health, the manufacturer of Amoxi-Drops, lists treatment of cystitis, a urinary tract infection caused by increased bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Proteus mirabilis and Corynebacterium spp" as an approved usage for the medication.

   Function

   • Playfulness is a sign your cat is feeling better. cat image by petar Ishmeriev from Fotolia.com

     Amoxi-Drops are classified as an aminopenicillin, which converts to liquid form by adding water to amoxicillin powder. This makes administering the medication easier for cat owners. Once the cat ingests the Amoxi-Drops, the cat's tissues absorb the medication.

   Considerations

   • While Doctors Foster and Smith indicate that ampicillin (an injectable form of penicillin in the same classification as Amoxi-Drops) may interfere with accurate urine glucose results, there is no indication that amoxicillin, the primary ingredient in Amoxi-Drops, causes the same problem.

   Warning

   • It is critical to discuss any antibiotic prescriptions for a diabetic cat with a veterinarian. The veterinarian can best determine if prescribed antibiotics will interfere with the cat's diabetes and related treatment program.

The urethra, located below the urinary bladder in men and women, is a thin tube that allows people to pass urine out of the body. It helps remove waste produced by the kidneys' filtering process when cleaning the blood. For men, the urethra also serves a role in sexual intercourse, helping sexual fluids flow out of the penis.

1. Description

   • According to MedicaLook, the urethra is a long tube made out of smooth muscle fibers, which are surrounded by muscle fibers. Urethra glands are located inside the urethra, which produces mucous that coats the entire urethra.

   Location

   • The urethra starts at the opening of the urinary bladder and runs downward to an opening in the genitals. In women, the opening is located below the clitoris and above the vagina. In men, the opening is located at the tip of the penis.

   Job

   • The urethra transports waste, also referred to as urine, from the urinary bladder to the opening in the genitals. Both men and women relieve urine from the body through this process. The urethra also transports semen out of the penis for men during sexual intercourse.

   Types

   • In women, the urethra is straight, measuring approximately 4 cm in length. Men have a longer urethra shaped like a S, stretching 20 cm in length. It is shaped like a S to fit the curves of the penis.

     For men, the urethra is also segmented into three parts. The first part, which starts at the urinary bladder, goes through the prostrate gland. The second portion goes through the pelvic floor and into the beginning portion of the penis. The last portion extends through the length of the penis and ends at its tip.

   Problems

   • According to the University of Rochester Medical Center, the urethra is prone to developing several conditions, including urethral strictures, urethral infections, urethral diverticulum and urethral cancer. Urethral strictures, or the narrowing of the urethra, is caused if the urethra becomes inflamed or injured, which makes it painful to urinate. Bacteria can also infect the urethra, causing urethral infections.

     Urethral diverticulum is a condition that causes the urethra to enlarge like a pouch, making the area surrounding it bulge out. Urethral cancer is rare cancer that affects the urethra and surrounding bladder but tends to occur in more women than men, according to UrologyChannel.com.

Canine myositis is an autoimmune disease that causes painful swelling in affected muscles. Dogs that receive treatment for canine myositis early on in the disease usually have a quick and complete recovery, according to Michigan Veterinary Specialists. However, the medications traditionally used to treat myositis are very powerful and may make your dog susceptible to other illnesses, even if taken for a short amount of time. By taking a holistic approach, you can help your dog complete the necessary conventional treatment, combat side effects and remain otherwise healthy.

Difficulty:

Moderately Easy

Instructions

Things You'll Need

• Prescribed medications
• Nutritious dog food
• Supplements (optional)
• Soft chew toys (as applicable)
• Soft dog foods (as applicable)

1. • 1

     Your veterinarian may recommend you treat your dog with oral steroids for four to six months with a gradually tapered dose. These will suppress your dog's immune system and are usually corticosteroids such as prednisone. High-dose steroids will keep your dog's immune system from attacking itself temporarily and allow your dog's body to heal.

   • 2

     Other immunosuppressant medications such as azathioprine may be used in combination with the steroid treatment. The goal of this high-powered combination of medications is to get your dog back to normal in the short-term, according to Davies Veterinary Specialists.

   • 3

     Bolster your dog's immune system with a nutritionally balanced diet so it does not become open to urinary, respiratory or other infections while undergoing the steroid and immunosuppressant therapies. Consider feeding your dog a home-prepared diet of natural, whole foods. Donna Krueger, DVM and contributor to dogchannel.com, recognizes that a whole-food diet can be beneficial to dogs, provided that it is nutritious and balanced.

   • 4

     Consult with your veterinarian about adding supplements to your dog's diet to further boost its immune system and help counteract the negative effects of steroid treatment. Examples include Transfer Factor, a product containing antibodies and enzymes to strengthen the immune systems, Ferrofood, a good source of iron to help your dog's body create new red blood cells, and Canine Hepatic Support, to help with liver function.

   • 5

     Encourage your dog to chew on soft toys as a form of physical therapy if its masticatory muscles are affected, recommends Wendy C. Brooks, DVM, and Educational Director for veterinarypartner.com.

   • 6

     Adjust care to your dog's abilities. For example, if your dog's jaw becomes severely affected by myositis, feed it soft foods and utilize a feeding tube, if necessary.

   • 7

     Keep your dog on low-dose steroids to treat chronic myositis, as recommended by your veterinarian.

Tips & Warnings

• Tell your veterinarian if your dog experiences side effects so that he may adjust the dosage of the medications, if necessary. Be aware that steroids and other immunosuppressant treatments may increase your dog's thirst, urination, appetite or cause it to suffer from stomach upset.

• Follow the recommendations of your veterinarian. Steroids and immunosuppressives are prescription-only.

• If you stop the steroid treatment too early, your dog may be at increased risk for relapse, according to veterinarypartner.com.

• Never force your dog's jaw open if it has masticatory myositis, warns veterinarypartner.com.

• Some dogs may need life-long treatment and the medications may not work in all cases.

Groups interested in seeking alternatives to animal testing refer to their approach as the three Rs. The three Rs are refinement, reduction and replacement. Replacement means an alternative to doing any animal testing at all or replacing a test currently done on animals with one that does not require animal testing. Reduction refers to methods that reduce the number of animal tests that are required. Refinement means altering testing methods so that they cause less distress and suffering in animal testing subjects.

1. Population Studies

   • Epidemiological studies are also known as population studies. These types of studies involve looking at the total environment and checking a number of factors such as diet, age, occupation and other factors to try to refine the questions that scientists need to answer. These questions do not always eliminate animal testing but by refining the information needed they can considerably reduce the amount of testing required.

   In Vitro

   • In vitro testing, also known as cell and tissue culture, tests the effects of diseases, medicines, toxins or other substances on actual human tissue in a laboratory environment. These cells are either harvested from humans or grown in a laboratory. Frequently, as in the case of skin or blood cells, they can be taken from living people without doing them any real damage. With in vitro testing, scientists can choose which types of cells and from which part of the body they are interested in testing.

   Computer Models

   • Computers, with advanced animation and high resolution, can simulate many biological processes. Computers can be used to simulate the effect of diseases, chemicals and medicines on human or animal biological systems without the need for actual animal testing. In some ways these simulations may be more accurate as they can show side effects that scientists weren't directly looking for. As scientists learn more about the human genome this type of modeling should become even more accurate.

   Others

   • Some organizations such as Global Action Network suggest testing on human populations such as volunteers and patients. While there have been some calls to start using living patients earlier in the testing process in the case of terminal diseases, for the most part these suggestions will meet with considerable obstacles because of laws against medical testing on humans.